Matter+and+Change+and+the+Periodic+Table


 * Biology Period D**

= Chapters 2 & 6 = Editor: Lauren Sachs

Site for Textbook with Chapter Quizzes and Links Fun Interactive Periodic Table





Chapter 2 focuses on matter. It begins with properties of matter and the different states of matter. It mentions chemical and physical changes as well as distinguishing between a mixture, an element, and a compound. Chapter 6 focuses on the periodic table. It begins with the ways that the elements have been organized and the different categories of elements. It also classifies elements according to the current periodic table. It concludes by mentioning trends in atomic size and trends when it comes to ions.

= Chapter 2: Matter and Change =

Group 1:

 * Ian Travis (Co-editor)
 * Chris Hughes
 * Caitlyn Vogt
 * Zach Boulerice
 * Gabe Hannawi
 * Cassie Naimie

Describing Matter ﻿(p. 39)

 * Properties used to describe matter can be classified as extensive or intensive
 * Extensive Properties: properties that depend on the amount of matter in a sample (mass and volume)
 * Intensive Properties: properties that depend on the type of mater, not the amount (density, temperature, color, etc.)



Identifying Substances (p. 40)

 * Substance: matter that has a uniform and definite composition
 * Therefore, any sample of a substance has the same intensive properties
 * Physical Properties: a quality or condition of a substance that can be observed without changing the composition
 * Physical properties help chemists identify substances

** States of Matter (p. 41-42)**
 * Three states of matter are solid liquid and gas
 * A solid has a definite shape and volume and the particles are in a tight orderly arrangement
 * A liquid has an indefinite shape, but a fixed volume and the particles are not orderly, allowing liquid to flow freely
 * A gas takes the shape and volume of its container
 * Vapor refers to a gas that is usually solid or liquid at room temperature

** Physical Changes (p. 42)**
 * Physical Change: when some properties of matter change, but the composition does not change
 * Physical changes can be reversible or irreversible

**2.2 Mixtures (pp. 44-47)** By Caitlyn Vogt and Cassie Naimie

**Classifying Mixtures** What is a Mixture?

//A **__mixture__** is a physical blend of two or more components // //There are two different types of mixtures // // 1. **__Heterogeneous Mixture __** is a mixture in which composition is not uniform throughout // //a. Eg: salad from a salad bar // //i. It has different types of lettuce, cucumbers, tomatoes, carrot buts, etc. // // 2. **__Homogenous Mixture __** is a mixture in which the composition is uniform throughout // //a. Eg: air, stainless steel // //i. One cannot differentiate one part of these materials from the other // //Homogenous mixtures can also be called **__solutions__** // //Many solutions are liquid but some are gasses or solids // // **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Phase __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">- a phase is used to describe any part of a sample with uniform composition and properties // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">Homogenous mixtures consist of one phase //

** Separating Mixtures //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt;">- Two Methods //** // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">1. **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Filtration __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">- the process which separates the solid from the liquid in a heterogeneous mixture // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">a. When one uses a colander to separate pasta from the water it was boiling in // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;"> // <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">2. **__<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">Distillation __**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%;">- process in which a liquid is boiled to produce vapor that is then condensed into a liquid // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1in; text-indent: -0.25in;">a. What does that mean?-my dad explained it to me this way // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">i. Say you have a cup of water but accidentally spill salt into it-you need to get the salt out // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">ii. You can put the mixture into a pot and boil it // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">iii. The water will turn into vapor and can be funneled into a separate container // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">iv. The vapor will eventually be condensed back into a liquid // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 0pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">v. In the pan the salt will be the only material remaining // //<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 115%; margin: 0in 0in 10pt 1.5in; text-indent: -1.5in;">vi. Therefore you used the process of distillation to separate a liquid from a solid by boiling the liquid to produce vapor that will be condensed back into a solid //

//<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 0px; overflow: hidden;">﻿ //

**2.3 Elements and Compounds (pg. 48-52)**

Distinguishing Elements and Compounds ** ﻿ (p. 48-49) ** By: Chris Hughes

// ﻿ //// Substances can be classified as elements or compounds. //


 * An **element** is the simplest form of matter that has a unique set of properties. there are more than 100 known elements.
 * A **compound** is a subtance that contains 2 or more elements chemically combined in a fixed proportion.
 * There is a key difference between elements and compounds:
 * Compounds can be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means, but elements cannot.
 * 1) Breaking down compounds
 * Physical methods used to separate mixtures cannot be used to break down a compound. For example, if you boil water you get water vapor, but not the hydrogen and oxygen that make up water.
 * A **chemical change** is a change that produces matter with a different composition than the original matter.

//2. Properties of Compounds//
 * In general, properties of compounds are different from those of their component elements. For instance, sugar is a sweet-tasting solid while carbon is a black, tasteless solid.
 * Another example is table salt. Sodium and chlorine in separate forms are highly volatile and toxic, but put together and it is used with food on a widespread scale.

** Distinguishing Substances and Mixtures ** ﻿ ﻿(p. 50)
By: Chris Hughes
 * __ ﻿ ﻿ __ This task can sometimes be difficult when basing the decision solely on appearance.
 * Sometimes considering whether there is more than one kind or version of the material. For instance, there's skim milk, fat-free, whole, light cream and heavy cream. From this you can conclude milk is a mixture.
 * If the composition of a material is fixed, the material is a substance. If the composition of a material may vary, the material is a mixture

Symbols and Formulas (Pg. 51-52)
By: Gabriel Hannawi
 * Chemists use chemical symbols to represent elements, and chemical formulas to represent compounds
 * The symbols used today for elements are based on a system developed by Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius
 * Each element is represented by a one or two letter chemical symbol
 * Chemical symbols provide a shorthand way of writing chemical formulas, such as H2O or C12H22O1

<span style="font-size: 1.3em; margin: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 5px;">**John Dalton's Periodic Table of 1808**


**2.4 Chemical Reactions (pg. 53-55)** By: Ian Travis

** Chemical Changes (p. 53) ** Chemical Changes occurs when matter undergoes a change that results in a type of matter with a different composition than the original.When iron rusts, for example, it become iron oxide.

//Words such as// burn, rot, rust, decompose, ferment, explode, //and// corrode //indicate a chemical change.//


 * **__Chemical Property-__**The ability of a substance to undergo a specific chemical change. ex: rust is a chemical property of iron.
 * **__Chemical Reaction-__**One or more substances change into one or more new substances.
 * **__Reactant-__**Substance present at the start of a reaction
 * **__Product-__**A substance produced in a reaction

During Chemical change, the composition of matter always changes.
__Examples of chemical reactions:__

//-Rusting iron// //-Burning paper// //-Electrolysis// //-Production of curds and whey in cheese production.// //__Examples of physical change (not chemical reactions):__// //-Bending iron// //-Cutting paper// //-Freezing or melting water//

Recognizing Chemical Changes ** (p. 54) **
__ Some evidence of chemical change includes: __

// - transfer of energy // // - change in color // // - production of gas // // - formation of a precipitate //

// **Energy Transfer always occurs in a chemical change.** For example, the heat energy given off when cooking food is a sign that methane gas has been combined with oxygen. Some of this energy will be transferred to the food. The food may become a darker color, another example of evidence towards chemical change.//

//**Energy Transfer always occurs when matter changes state.** However, a clue towards chemical change does not definitively prove a chemical change has occurred. Some physical changes transfers energy as well. Energy is always transferred when a sample of matter changes from one state to another. Bubbles are produced from boiled water or the opening of a carbonated drink.//

Conservation of Mass (p. 55)
When a block of wood burns, it may appear as though its end result is less massive the initial reactant: a smaller pile of ashes, however this is not the case.

The mass of the products is always equal to the mass of the reactants in a chemical reaction.


// Mass will also remain constant during a physical change. All this leads to the //

//**__Law of conservation of mass-__**During any physical or chemical change, mass is conserved. Mass is neither created nor destroyed.//

Chapter 6: The Peri ﻿ odic Table

Group 2:
 * Tess Murphy (Co-Editor)
 * Alex Trombetta
 * Henry Dodge
 * Jess Mahoney
 * Andrew Ware

**6.1 Organizing the Elements (pg. 155-160)**

** Searching for an Organizing Principle ﻿(p. 155) ** By: Jess Mahoney // ﻿ //
 * Copper, silver, and gold have been known for thousands of years[[image:http://2.bp.blogspot.com/_OfUP54JM53I/SB5AM4I6bvI/AAAAAAAAAEA/_wvofx_pe3g/s400/Dobereiner.jpg align="right"]]
 * In 1700, there were only 13 identified elements
 * Chemists thought there might be more elements, but couldn’t get the elements separate from their compounds
 * Scientific methods increased the rate of discovery
 * Chemists used element properties to organize them into groups.
 * 1829- J.W. Dobereiner published a classification system that organized elements with similar properties into triads (group of 3 elements)
 * He wasn’t completely successful, because not all the elements fit into triads

Mendeleev’s Periodic Table ﻿(p. 156)
By: Jess Mahoney
 * 1829-1869: many different systems suggested and rejected
 * 1869: Dmitri Mendeleev (Russian chemist) published an elements table
 * Lothar Meyer (German chemist) published a table too, but Mendeleev could explain his better and his came out first, so he is given more credit.
 * Mendeleev arranged the elements in his periodic table in order of increasing atomic Mass//.//
 * He was a teacher so he wrote out note cards of element properties in order to teach his students- the result was the periodic table.
 * He didn’t know all the elements at the time, but his close predictions of their properties to the actual properties convinced scientists that he was right.

The Periodic Law (p. 157)
By: Henry Dodge
 * Problems emerged with pairs of elements involving atomic masses. The problem was not the masses, but rather using the atomic masses to organize the periodic table.
 * Mendeleev developed his periodic table before it was known that each element contains a unique number of protons.
 * Number of protons = atomic number
 * // I // n today’s periodic table, the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
 * Each period (row) on the periodic table resembles a principal energy level.
 * More elements are found in higher numbered periods because there are more orbitals in higher energy levels.
 * Period Law: when elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a period repitition of their physical and chemical properties.

Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids (p. 158-160)
By: Henry Dodge
 * For scientists to communicate clearly, they need to agree on the standards they will use. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry sets the standards for chemistry.
 * Groups are labeled 1-18
 * Metals, nonmetals, and metalloids are three classes of elements. Moving from left to right, the periodic table becomes less metallic.



Metals (p. 158)
// By: Henry Dodge //
 * good conductors of electricity that can reflect light.
 * Ductile Metals can be drawn into wires. Malleable metals can be hammered into thin sheets.

Nonmetals (p. 159)
By: Andrew Ware
 * These elements are in the upper-right corner of the periodic table.
 * There is a greater variation in physical properties among nonmetals than among metals.
 * Most nonmetals are gases, however there are a few solids. (Bromine is a liquid)
 * Nonmetals are poor conductors of heat and electricity. Solid nonmetals tend to be brittle, they will shatter if hit with a hammer.

Metalloids (p. 160)
By: Andrew Ware
 * Metalloids are shaded green on the periodic table.
 * under some conditions a metalloid is like a nonmetal, however under some conditions, a metalloid may behave like a metal.
 * The behavior often can be controlled by changing the conditions. For example pre silicon is a poor electric conductor, but if a small amount of boron is mixed with silicon, the mixture is a good electric conductor.

**6.2 Classifying the Elements (pg. 161-167)**

Squares in the Periodic Table (p. 161-163)
By: Tess Murphy
 * Symbols, names, and structural information of elements can be found in the periodic table.

//Understanding an element square://

//Element symbols for://


 * solids at room temperature are in **black**.
 * gases are ** red **.
 * liquids at room temperature are in ** blue **. (only two: mercury and bromine)
 * elements not found in nature are in ** green **.

//Names of different groups of metals://

-comes from Arabic al aqali //meaning “the ashes”//
 * Group 1A elements = Alkali Metals

-comes from Greek word hals //meaning salt and// genesis //meaning “to be born”//
 * Group 2A elements = Alkaline Earth Metals
 * Nonmetals of Group 7A = Halogens

//Background colors are used to distinguish the different groups of elements.//

Electron Configurations in Groups (p. 164)
By: Tess Murphy
 * Electrons have a key role in determining properties of elements

//Elements can be categorized into://



Noble gases (p. 164)

 * elements in Group 8A
 * nonmetals
 * called inert gases- rarely take part in reactions, in atoms
 * //the// s //and// p //levels are full//

Representative Elements (p. 164)

 * Groups 1A- 7A
 * wide range of physical and chemical properties, in atoms-
 * //the// s //and// p //levels are not filled//
 * group number= number of electrons in the highest occupied energy level

Representative elements in nature (p. 165)

 * magnesium- in chlorophyll in leaves
 * sodium- sodium chloride is the main salt in a salt pan
 * arsenic- the bright red ore contains a compound of arsenic and sulfur
 * sulfur- the yellow substance being released from a volcano

Transition Elements (p. 166-167)
By: Alex Trombetta
 * In the periodic table the B groups separate the two A groups on either side of the table. The elements in this group provide a connection between the two sets of representative elements and are known as transition elements. There are transition metals and inner transition metals.
 * Transition Metal: On of the Group B elements in which the highest occupied s sublevel and a nearby d sublevel generally contain electrons. (Characterized by the presence of electrons in d orbital’s.
 * Inner Transition Metal: An element in the lanthanide or actinide series; the highest occupied s sublevel and nearby f sublevel of its atoms generally contain electrons. (were once known as rare earth metals but there name later changed when it was discovered that they were more abundant then some other elements.)



Blocks of Elements (p. 166)
> -The s block contains the elements in Groups 1A and 2A and the noble gas Helium. > -The p block contains the elements in Groups 3A, 4A, 5A, 6A, 7A, and 8A with the exception of helium. > -The d block contains the transition metals. > -The f block contains the inner transition metals. > -For transition metals the electrons are added to a d sublevel with a principal energy that is one less than the period number. > -For inner transition metals the principal energy level of the f sublevel is two less then the period number. > @http://pages.uoregon.edu/ch111/images/periodictable_electronic_structure.jpg > ￼
 * A pattern emerges upon looking at the electron configuration and positions of the elements on the periodic table. The periodic table can be divided into section or blocks, corresponding with highest occupied sublevels.
 * You can use these blocks to determine electron configurations of elements. Each period corresponds with a principle energy level. If an element is located in period 3 then you know the s and p sublevels in energy levels are 1 and 2. You can then read across period 3 from left to right to finish the configuration.
 * Practice Problem:**

//Nitrogen is and element that organisms need to remain healthy. However most organisms cannot obtain nitrogen directly from the air. A few organisms can convert elemental nitrogen into a form that can be absorbed by plant and animal cells. These include bacteria that live in lumps called nodules on the root of legumes. Write the electron configuration for nitrogen which had atomic number 7.// //1.) Analyze: For all elements the atomic number is equal to the total number of electrons. For a representative element, the highest occupied energy level is the same as the number of the period in which the element is located. From the group in which the element is located you can tell how many electrons are in this energy level.// //2.) Solve: Nitrogen is located in the second period of the periodic table in the third group of the p block. Nitrogen has seven electrons. The configuration for the two electrons in the first energy level is 1s2. The configuration for the five electrons in the second energy level is 2s2 2p3// //**More Problems:**// //Find the electron configuration of the following elements:// //A Carbon B Strontium C Vanadium// //List the elements for the following electron configurations. (each n represents and energy level.// //A ns2 np1 B ns2np5 C ns2np6nd2(n+1)s2//

Group 3:
 * Nick Romero (Co-Editor)
 * Sahana Nazeer
 * Erin Cropanese
 * Joe Hatch
 * Kevin McAllister

**6.3 Periodic Trends (pg. 170-178)**

** Trends in Atomic Size (p. 170-172)** By: Sahana Nazeer

Units that form when atoms of the same element are joined together are molecules. Atoms in each molecule are identical, therefore the distance between the nuclei of these atoms are used to estimate the __size of the atoms__. The size of the atoms, or the __atomic radius__ is one half of the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element when atoms of that element are joined. Since the distance between the two nuclei are very small, it is measured in picometers.

On a periodic table, the atomic size increases vertically and decreases horizontally. As the atomic number increases within a group, the charge on the nucleus increases and the number of the occupied energy levels increase. The atomic size also increases within a group. Across a period, electrons are added to the same principal energy level, therefore the increasing nuclear charge pulls the electrons in the highest occupied energy level closer to the nucleus, making the atomic size decrease.
 * The shielding effect is greater than the effect of the increase in nuclear charge.*
 * The shielding effect is constant for all elements in a period.*

Ions __ ﻿ __ ﻿(p. 172)
By: Sahana Nazeer

//Ion -- an atom or a group of atoms that have either a positive or negative charge// Ions form when electrons are transferred between atoms.// Metallic elements tend to form ions by losing one or more electrons. Nonmetallic elements tend to gain one electron. An ion with a positive charge is called a __cation__ (a "+" sign is used to state its charge). An ion with a negative charge is called an __anion__ (a "-" sign is used to state its charge). If the charge is 1+ or 1-, then the number 1 can be omitted from the complete symbol of the ion. Also, the number goes before the charge symbol ("+" or "-").

Trends in Ionization Energy (p. 173)
By: Kevin McAllister

__Trends in Ionization Energy__ Electrons can move between atoms when they are pulled in different directions The energy needed to remove an electron from the atom is called it's Ionization energy. In the periodic table, the ionization energy decreases from top to bottom in a group In the periodic table, the ionization energy increases from left to right in a period __The First Ionization Energy__ is that energy needed to remove the electron for the atom __The Second Ionization Energy:__ The energy needed to remove an electron from an ion with a 1+ charge (meaning that it is a positive ion) __The Third Ionization Energy:__ The energy needed to remove an electron from an ion with a 2+ charge(more positive than the last) __Uses for Ionization Energies__ When you know what the ionization energy is, you can predict what ions elements will form if that ionization energy is utilized and the electrons are taken. Check out [|This Video] to find out more trends in the periodic table having to do with Ionization Energies.

Group Trends in Ionization Energy and Periodic Trends in Ionization Energy (p. 174)
By: Joe Hatch


 * In a group, ionization decreases from top to bottom
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 115%;">Nuclear charge has a lesser effect on larger atoms’ electrons in the highest occupied energy level
 * <span style="font-family: Calibri,sans-serif; font-size: 15px; line-height: 17px;">Therefore, less energy is required to remove an electron from this energy level
 * And the first ionization energy is lower
 * From left to right on a periodic table, ionization energy tends to increase
 * This is because of nuclear charge and the shielding effect
 * Nuclear charge increases and the shielding effect remains constant
 * As the nuclear charge increases, so does the attraction between the electrons and the nucleus. Thus making the energy to remove the electron higher
 * From top to bottom on the periodic table, the ionization energy tends to decrease

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Trends in Electronegativity (pg. 177)
By Erin Cropanese

__Electronegativity__: the ability of an atom of an element to attract electrons when the atom is in a compound.
 * this property that can be used to predict the type of bond that will form during a reaction
 * calculated by ionization energy
 * generally decrease from top to bottom within a group
 * for representative elements, the values tend to increase from left to right across a period
 * values among the transition metals are not as regular
 * low electronegativity gives the element less tendency to attract electrons



Summary of Trends ﻿ ﻿(p. 178)
By Nick Romero Co-editor

In the Periodic Table their are trends of atomic size, ionization energy, ionic size, and electonegativity, nuclear charge, and shielding effect. These trends exist in Groups 1A to 8A. They exist across periods and down groups.

[|YOUTUBE]