Solutions,+Acids,+Bases,+&+Salts

Chapters 15, 16, & 19 =//__Aqueous Systems, Solutions, Acids, Bases, & Salts__// =

The purpose of this wiki page is to help understand the subjects of water and aqueous systems (chapter 15), solutions (chapter 16), and acids, bases, and salts (chapter 19).

Chapter fifteen informs students of water and its properties, homogeneous aqueous systems, and heterogeneous aqueous solutions. This chapter focuses more on concepts, rather than the mathematical aspect of chemistry. Key words in chapter fifteen consist of: aqueous solution, Brownian motion, colloid, electrolyte, emulsion, hydrate, nonelectrolyte, solute, solvation, solvent, strong electrolyte, surfactant, suspension, surface tension, Tyndall effect, and weak electrolyte. The sole mathematical concept in this chapter is the equation used to find the percent of hydrogen, which is the mass of water divided by the mass of the hydrate, multiplied by 100%.

Chapter sixteen informs students about the broad topic of solutions, inclusive of how to calculate concentrations in solutions and colligative properties and the calculations relative to them. Chapter sixteen combines both mathematical equations and vocabulary. Common terms in relation to chapter sixteen consist of the colligative properties, types of solutions (concentrated, dilute, saturated, supersaturated, and unsaturated), Henry’s law, miscible/immiscible, molality, molarity, and solubility. Mathematical concepts include, but are not limited to: Henry’s law, molarity (M), percent by volume and by mass, molality (m), and mole fractions.

Chapter nineteen informs students about acids, bases, and salts. It focuses on acid-base theories, hydrogen ions and acidity, strengths of acids and bases, neutralization, and salts in solutions. It goes on to explain how acids and bases are measured on the pH chart. For a summary of the concepts included in this chapter, visit the following link!

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Editor: Sahana Nazeer

**Group 1: Water and Its Propertie****s** **Group 2: Homogenous Aqueous Systems** **Group 3: Heterogenous Aqueous Systems** **Group 4: Properties of Solutions** **Group 5: Concentration of Solutions** **Group 6: Colligative Properties** **Group 7: Colligative Properties & Calculations** **Group 8: Acid-Base Theories** **Group 9: Hydrogen Ions** <span style="color: #382df0; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Group 10: Strengths of Acids & Bases** <span style="color: #382df0; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Group 11: Neutralization Reactions** <span style="color: #382df0; font-family: Georgia,serif;">**Group 12: Salts in Solutions**
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Andrew Ware (pg. 445-449)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Caitlyn Vogt (pg. 450-458)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Alex Trombetta (pg. 459-463)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Ian Travis (pg. 471-479)
 * <span style="margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;"> Lauren Sachs (pg. 480-485 )
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Nick Romero (pg. 487-490)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Gabe Hannawi (pg. 491-496)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Joe Hatch (pg. 587-589)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Tess Murphy (pg. 590-593)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Cassie Naimie (pg. 594-598)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Zac Boulerice (pg.599-603)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Kevin McAllister (pg. 605-607)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Erin Cropanese (pg. 608-610)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Henry Dodge (pg. 612-614)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Jess Mahoney (pg. 614-616)
 * <span style="color: #800080; margin: 0.5em 0px 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 3em; padding-right: 0px; padding-top: 0px;">Chris Hughes (pg. 618-622)

**__ Chapter 15 - Water & Aqueous Systems __**

<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In a solution the dissolving medium is the **solvent** and the dissolved particles are the **solute**
===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">For example, when you add the powdery, sugary Kool aid mix to a glass of water on a hot summer day, the solute would be the Kool aid powder. The Kool aid dissolves into the water or solvent; the dissolving medium. ===

<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Solutions are HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURES and are stable regardless of the conditions they are in.
===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Particles that dissolve in water include ionic compounds and **polar covalent** molecules. Particles that do not dissolve in water are **nonpolar covalent** molecules-ie: gasoline, oil, grease ===

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">2. When an ionic solid is placed in water the water will collide with the object
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">3. Because a water molecule is polar it has negative and positive charges of hydrogen- polar solvent molecules attract the solute ions === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">4. As individual solute ions break away from the crystal, the negatively and positively charged ions become surrounded by solvent molecules and ionic crystal dissolves ===

**<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The whole process is called solvation!!!! **
=== <span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">· <span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Sometimes the attraction amongst the particles of the crystal is stronger than the attraction of the water molecules ultimately creating something that is insoluble. ===

**<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">[] **
===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">if you still aren’t understanding the whole solvation concept this video is made by high school students explaining the process in a very…literal way. ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes **
=== **<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Electrolyte **<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> is a compound that conducts an electric current when it is in an aqueous solution or in the molten state. ===

<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">*All ionic compounds are electrolytes because they disassociate into ions
===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">A **nonelectrolyte** is a compound that does not conduct electric current in either aqueous solution or molten state. Many molecular compounds are nonelectrolytes because they are not composed of ions. === ===<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">SOME POLAR MOLECULAR COMPOUNDS ARE NONELECTROLYTES IN A PURE STATES BUT BECOME ELECTROLYTES WHEN DISSOLVED IN WATER BECAUSE THE COMPOUNDS IONIZE IN A SOLUTION. ===

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Electrolytes conduct electric current and can either be a strong electrolyte or a weak electrolyte.
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">A **strong electrolyte** occurs when the atoms of a compound are completely ionized and work separately. A **weak electrolyte** obtains atoms of a compound that are not fully ionized and only a fraction of the atoms are ions. Weak electrolytes do not conduct electricity in as much strength as strong electrolytes do. ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Hydrates **
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The water contained in a crystal is called the water of hydration or water crystallization. A compound that contains water of hydration is called a **hydrate**. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In writing the formula of a hydrate, use a dot to connect the formula of the compound and the number of water molecules per formula unit. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Efflorescent Hydrates: The forces holding the water molecules in hydrates are not very strong, so the water is easily lost and regained. Because the water molecules are held by weak forces, hydrates often have an appreciable vapor pressure. If a hydrate has a vapor pressure higher than the pressure of water vapor in the air, the hydrate will lose its water of hydration **or effloresce**. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Hygroscopic Hydrates: Hydrated salts that have a low vapor pressure remove water from moist air to form higher hydrates. These hydrates and other compounds that remove moisture from air are called **hygroscopic**. ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Suspensions **
=== A suspension is a mixture from which particles settle out upon standing. A suspension differs from a solution because the particles of a suspension are much larger and do not stay suspended indefinitely. === === The average diameter of the particles in a suspension are greater than 1000 nm while in a solution it is usually about 1 nm. If the particles are larger, they usually have more gravity therefore causing them, ===

A colloid is a heterogenous mixture containing particles that range in size from 1 nm to 1000 nm. These particles are spread through the dispersion medium which can be solid liquid or gas.
=== Colloids are usually milky looking, and may also look clear when dilute. Main difference between colloid and suspension is the size difference of the particles. Colloids have particles smaller than those ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The Tyndall Effect **
=== The scattering of visible light by colloidal particles is called the Tyndall Effect. This effect is also exhibited in suspensions, but not in solutions. It is not present in solutions, because the particles ===

When looking under a microscope at colloids one can observe flashes of light. These flashes can also be known as scintillations. Colloids scintillate because the particles reflecting and scattering
=== move erratically. The chaotic movement of colloidal particles is called Brownian Motion. This was first observed by Scottish Botanist Robert Brown. This motion is caused by collisions of the molecules ===

Colloidal particles also tend to stay suspended because they are charged when absorbing ions from the dispersing medium onto their surface. Some colloidal particles upon absorbing positive ions
=== in turn themselves become positive. This is the same when negative particles are absorbed in the fact that they the colloidal particles become negative. All particles in a colloid system should have the same === === charge. Therefore by adding ions of opposite charge to that of the colloidal particles will destroy the colloidal system. Adding ions neutralized the charged colloidal particels and they can clump together ===

**__ Chapter 16 - Solutions __**

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Solution Formation **
=== **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Solution: __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> homogeneous mixtures that may be solid, liquid, or gas. The composition of its parts, the solvent, which dissolves the solute, determines whether a substance will dissolve. ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Stirring & Solution Formation **
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Agitation causes the solvent of a solution to come into contact with the solute at a faster rate due to the movement involved. ===

=== **<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Note: Agitation will only affect the rate of dissolving. It will not affect how much will dissolve, or what solutes can dissolve in which solvents. ** === === **<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">No matter how vigorously or for how long a mixture is agitated, if the would-be solute is insoluble in the would-be solvent, no solution will occur. ** ===

=== **<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Though the solvent's molecules continue to interact with the solvent, and the solutes particles are indeed being dissolved, ****<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">an equal quantity of the solute is being crystallized, and returning to the solid remaining in the saturated solution. ** ===

=== **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">A saturated solution: __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> Is a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and pressure, containing the maximum amount of dissolved solute. ===

=== **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Solubility: __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> Is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Solubility is often expressed in grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent. Gas solubility is sometimes expressed as grams per liter of solution. ===

=== **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">An unsaturated solution: __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> is a solution that contains less solute than a saturated solution at the same temperature and pressure. Solute will continue to dissolve in this until it becomes saturated. ===

===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Two liquids are **__miscible:__** if they dissolve in each other in all proportions. When this occurs, the liquid that is in greater quantity is considered the solvent. ===

===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">When a saturated solution whose solubility increases with temperature is allowed to cool to the point where its solubility ===

=== **__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">A supersaturated solution: __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> contains more solute that it would theoretically hold at a given temperature. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The dissolved solid can be crystallized by dropping a very small crystal (called a seed crystal) into the solution. The result is often a very rapid crystallization. ===

=== **__<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Henry's Law: __****<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> states that at a given temperature, the solubility(S) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure(P) of the gas above the liquid. ** === === **<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">(S1/P1) = (S2/P2) Where S1=solubility at a given temperature, P1=pressure at the same temperature, S2=solubility at a different temperature, P2=pressure at the same second temperature. ** ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Molarity **
**<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Molarity (M) = moles of solute/liters of solution **
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Concentration **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> of a solution is a measure of solute tht is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Dilute Solution **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">: a solution that contains a small amount of solute ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Concentrated Solution **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">: a solution that contains a large amount of solute ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">These terms are relative ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Ex. 1g NaCl in 100g H2O is dilute compared to 30g of NaCl in 100g of H2O, but it is concentrated compared to 0.1g NaCl in 100g H2O. ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Molarity: **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 liter of solution ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">To calculate the molarity of a solution divide the moles of solute by the volume of the solution ===


 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Note: volume is volume of entire solution, not just solvent ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">When M is accompanied by a number, it is read as # molar ===

<span style="color: #800080; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">[[file:Sample Problem 16-2.ppt]]

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">You can manipulate the equation if you have the molarity and there is some other unknown ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Ex. moles of solute = molarity (M) x liters of solution (V) ===

<span style="color: black; display: block; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt; text-align: center;"> [|Practice Problems and Solutions]

media type="youtube" key="OfnuPEvw38E?version=3" height="390" width="640" align="center"

=== **<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Making Dilutions ** === **<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Moles of solute = M1 x V1 = M2 x V2 **
 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">You can dilute a solution by adding more solvent ===
 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Diluting a solution reduces the number of moles of solute per unit volume, but the total number of moles of solute in a solution does not change (moles of solute before dilution=moles of solute after dilution) ===


 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">M1 and V1 are the original molarity and volume while M2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the diluted solution ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Volume can be measured in L or mL as long as it remains constant in the problem ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Many instruments can be used to measure volume in order to make a dilution (pipets, burets, volumetric flasks graduated cylinders) but they range in accuracy ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">For more significant figures, volumetric pipets or burets work best ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Percent Solutions **

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The concentration of a solution in percent can be expressed in two ways: as the ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution or as the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Concentration in Percent (Volume/Volume) **
**<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Percent by volume (%(v/v)) = (volume of solute/volume of solution) x 100% **
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">If both the solvent and solute are liquids, you can make a solution using the volumes ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The concentration is then shown as a percent ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Ex. 91% solution of isoproyl alcohol is 91 mL of the alcohol mixed with enough water to m ake 100mL ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Concentration in Percent (Mass/Mass) **
**<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Percent by mass (%(m/m)) = (mass of solute/mass of solution) x 100% **
 * === <span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">You can also use the mass in grams to calculate percents (especially with solids) [[image:http://www.welchsinternational.com/products/images_l/2008_product_updates/product_100juice.jpg width="154" height="167" align="right" caption="100% fruit juice"]] ===

[[file:Sample Problem.ppt]]

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Food labels often use percent composition ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Vapor-Pressure Lowering **
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Colligative property is a proper that depends only upon the number of solute particles and not upon their identity. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Vapor pressure is the pressure exerted by a vapor that is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid in a closed system. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">When a solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent (above the resulting solution) is lower than the vapor pressure above the pure solvent. === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The vapor pressure of the solvent above a solution changes as the concentration of the solute in the solution changes (but it does not depend on the identity of either the solvent or the solute(s) particles (kind, size or charge) in the solution). ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Freezing-Point Depression **
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The difference in temperature between freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent is freezing point depression === ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The freezing point of a solution is always lower than the freezing point of the pure solvent. The freezing point depression is roughly proportional to the of solute particles in the solution. Freezing point depression is an example of a of a solution ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Boiling-Point Elevation **
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">When a solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent (above the resulting solution) is less than the vapor pressure above the pure solvent. The boiling point of a solution, then, will be greater than the boiling point of the pure solvent because the solution (which has a //lower// vapor pressure) will need to be heated to a //higher// temperature in order for the vapor pressure to become equal to the external pressure (i.e., the boiling point). The boiling point of the solvent above a solution changes as the concentration of the solute in the solution changes (but it does not depend on the identity of either the solvent or the solute(s) particles (kind, size or charge) in the solution). media type="youtube" key="f35D7GUsLv0" height="349" width="425"

The mole fraction of a solute in a solution is the ration of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute.
> === XA=//n//A/(//n//A+//n//B) and XB=//n//B/(//n//A+//n//B) === > === ===
 * === In a solution containing //n//A mol of solute A and //n//B mol of solvent B, the mole fraction of solute A (XA) and the mole fraction of solvent B (XB) can be expressed as: ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Freezing-Point Depression & Boiling-Point Elevation **
Freezing point depression occurs when the freezing point of a liquid is lowered by adding another compound to it. The solution has a lower freezing point than that of the pure solvent .The formula for finding the freezing point depression can be expressed as: ∆Tf=Kf x m [|Freezing-Point Depression Practice Problems] When a solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent (above the resulting solution) is less than the vapor pressure above the pure solvent. The boiling point of a solution, then, will be greater than the boiling point of the pure solvent because the solution (which has a //lower// vapor pressure) will need to be heated to a //higher// temperature in order for the vapor pressure to become equal to the external pressure (i.e., the boiling point). The formula can be expressed as: **T**<span style="display: inline !important; font-family: inherit; line-height: 19px;">**b** <span style="display: inline !important; font-family: inherit;">**= Kb x m** **[|Boiling-Point Elevation Practice Problems]** media type="youtube" key="f35D7GUsLv0" height="349" width="425"

**__ Chapter 19 - Acids, Bases, & Salts __**

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Properties of Acids & Bases **

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Acids have a tart or sour taste ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Acids that are in aqueous solutions are electrolytes (conductor of electricity) ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Acids form water and salt when reacting with compounds containing hydroxide ions ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Bases have a bitter taste and are slippery ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">They also can form aqueous solutions that are electrolytes ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Arrhenius Acids & Bases **

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Svante Arrhenius - chemist that provided new way of thinking about acids and bases ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">monoprotic acids **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> - contain one ionizable hydrogen ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">diprotic acids **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> - contain two ionizable hydrogens ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">triprotic acids **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">- contain three ionizable hydrogens [[image:svante-arrhenius-1-sized.jpg align="right" caption="Svante Arrhenius"]] ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">It is important to note that not all compounds that contain hydrogen are acids ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Acids are formed with compounds that have hydrogens with very polar bonds ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">When a compound like this is dissolved in water, the hydrogen is released ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">For example: HCl is is a polar covalent bond and therefore can ionize to form acid (hydrochloric acid) ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">On the other hand, in CH4, the H atoms are attached by the C-H bonds ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide are extremely soluble in water ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">they can be made easily but also can cause deep wounds if they contact skin! ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">calcium hydroxide and magnesium hydroxide are not very soluble in water ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">their solutions are very dilute ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">magnesium hydroxide solutions are suspensions in water and are sometimes used as antacid and mild laxatives ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Bronsted Acids & Bases **

 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The Arrhenius definition of acid and bases isn’t complete ===
 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In 1923, the Danish chemist Johannes Bronsted and the English chemist Thomas Lowry separately created a new definition ===
 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Their theory defines **an acid as a hydrogen-ion donor, and a base as a hydrogen-ion acceptor.** ===
 * ===<span style="color: blue; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The theory includes all the acids and bases that are in the Arrhenius theory and more ===

<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Why Ammonia is a Base

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Ammonia gas is soluble in water ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Ammonia acts as a base when it dissolves in water- it accepts a hydrogen ion ===


 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In the above reaction: ===

===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">- the solution is basic ===

<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Conjugate Acids and Bases

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Solubility in water decreases as temperature increases ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Conjugate acid **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> = the particle formed when a base gains a hydrogen ion ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Conjugate base **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> = the particle that remains when an acid has donated a hydrogen acid ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Conjugate bases are always paired with an acid ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Conjugate acids are always paired with a base ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Conjugate acid-base pair **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> = two substances related by the loss or gain of a hydrogen ion ===

===<span style="color: black; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;"> ===


 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">water sometimes accepts a hydrogen ion and other times it donates one ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">ampohteric **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">= substance that can act as both an acid and a base ===
 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">water is amphoteric! ** ===

**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Gilbert Lewis created a third theory of acids and bases **

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">It was that an acid accepts a pair of electrons during a reaction, while a bases donates a pair of electrons ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">This is the most general theory ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Lewis acid = a substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Lewis base= a substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Some acids and bases are fall under Lewis and Bronsted-Lowry acids and bases ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Some acids and bases are only considered Lews acids and bases ===


 * === **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Type ** === || === **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Acid ** === || === **<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif;">Base ** === ||
 * ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">Arrhenius === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">H+ producer === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">OH- producer === ||
 * ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">Bronsted- Lowry === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">H+ donor === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">H+ acceptor === ||
 * ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">Lewis === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">Electron-pair accepter === || ===<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 130%;">Electron-pair donor === ||

**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">-Water molecules are highly polar and in constant motion, even at room temperature. **
===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">--Sometimes, a collision between water molecules has enough energy to transfer a hydorgen ion from one molecule to another. ===

<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">-The reaction in which water molecules produce ions is called the **self-ionization of water**
<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Strong & Weak Acids and Bases: **

 * === S trong Acids are completely ionized in aqueous solution. ===
 * === Examples include HCl and H2SO4 ===
 * === Weak Acids only partially ionize in an aqueous solution ===
 * === Ethanoic Acid is an example of a weak acid. ===
 * === [|This Video] Should Help you Out! ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Acid Dissociation Constant **

 * === A strong Acid completely dissociates in Water. ===
 * === A dissociation of an acid makes H3O+ and A- ions. ===
 * === These determine the extent of the dissociation of acids. ===
 * === An Acid Dissociation Constant (Ka) is the ratio of the concentration of the ionized acid to the concentration of the undissociated form ===
 * === This is a lot of mumbo jumbo for saying it is the fraction of the concentration of the after to the concentration of the original. ===
 * === Stronger Acids have higher dissociation constants ===
 * === Weaker Acids have lover dissociation Constants ===
 * === Check Out this [|Website] for a Dissociation Constant Chart ===

By: Erin Cropanese

 * === weak bases: react with water to form the hydroxide ion and the conjugate acid of the base ===
 * === strong base: dissociate completely into metal ions and hydroxide ions in aqueous solution ===
 * === base dissociation constant: the ratio of the concentration of the conjugate acid times the concentration of the hydroxide ion to the concentration of the base ===
 * === Kb= (conjugate acid) X (OH-) // (base ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Concentration & Strength **

 * === concentration and dilute indicate how much of an acid or base is dissolved in a solution ===
 * === they refer to the number of moles of the acid or base in a given volume ===
 * === they also indicate how many of the particles ionize or dissociate into ions ===
 * === hydrochloric acid is strong and it completely dissociated into ions ===
 * === vinegar is a dilute solution of a weak acid, ethanoic acid which is weak despite it being highly concentrated ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Calculating Dissociation Constants **

 * === you can calculate the acid dissociation constant of a weak acid or the base dissociation constant of a weak base from experimental data ===
 * === to find the Ka of a weak acid or the Kb of a weak base, substitute the measured concentrations of all the substances present at equilibrium into the expression for the Ka or Kb ===
 * === for a weak acid you can determine these concentrations experimentally if you know the initial molar concentration of the acid and pH of the solution at equilibrium ===
 * === you can find Ka by substituing the concentrations of the acid the negative ion from the dissociation of the acid and the hydrogen ion into the equation: Ka= H+ X A-/ HA ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Acid-Base Reactions **

 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Mixing a solution of strong acid with a solution of a strong base creates a neutral solution with properties uncharacteristic of acidic and basic solutions ** ===
 * === __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">neutalization reactions __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">: reactions in which an acid and a base react in an aqueous solution to produce a salt and water ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">example: HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) ---> NaCl (aq) + H2O (l) ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">neutralization reactions are a way to produce pure salts ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Main Idea: In general, the reaction of an acid with a base produces water and one of a compound class called salts ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Some Salts and their applications: ammonium sulfate- fertilizer ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">barium sulfate- gastrointestinal studies; white pigment ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">calcium chloride- de-icing roadways and sidewalks ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">potassium chloride- sodium-free salt substitute ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">silver bromide- photographic emulsions ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">sodium hydrogen carbonate (baking soda) - antacid ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">sodium carbonate decahydrate (washing soda) - glass manufacture; water softener ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">sodium chloride (table salt) - body electrolyte; chlorine manufacture ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Salt Hydrolysis **
> ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">reaction between a salt and water that makes the solution acidic or basic. More specifically, it is the hydrogen ion (proton) transfer between the dissociated anions or cations of a dissolved salt and the surrounding water molecules. ===
 * === http://chemistry.about.com/od/acidsbases/Acids_Bases_and_pH.htm ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Confusing? Mr. David Scott of Celina High School provides us with a very helpful explanation/worksheet (from which I found my definition). Just click on the link below to see it. ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">[] ===


 * === **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">In general, salts that produce acidic solutions contain positive ions that release protons to water. Salts that produce basic solutions contain negative ions that attract protons form water ****<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">. **<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;"> (from our book) ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">strong acid + strong base = NEUTRAL solution ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">strong acid + weak base = ACIDIC solution ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">weak acid + strong base = BASIC solution ===

**<span style="color: green; font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Buffers **

 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">A **buffer** is a solution in which the pH stays relatively constant when small amounts of acid or base are added. ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In our book, it says **A buffer is a solution of a weak acid and one of its salts, or a solution of a weak base and one of its salts.** ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">For a hardcore and in-depth (possibly college level) video presentation about buffers, click on this link [] WARNING: 10+ minutes ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">For a shorter and easier video demonstration, click on this link [] ===
 * ===<span style="color: #0000ff; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The **buffer capacity** is the amount of acid or base a buffer can take before there is a significant change in pH. ===