The+Jolly+Old+Tale+of+Bonds+and+Ions

==== This is the tale of Bonds and Ions! This group of chapters is one that focuses on all kinds of ions and the bonds that they make. It touches on everything from valence electrons to various scientific laws that govern the molecular world. It is a story that will take you through these few chapters and make it a lot easier to understand what is known as the jolly old tale of bonds and ions. ====

==== On another note, some pictures did not work because they were not saved in jpg formats and there was no way i could track them down. Most of them however do include links that will lead you to the pictures if you would like to view them. ====

==== · Heisenberg is out for a drive when he's stopped by a traffic cop. The cop says: "Do you know how fast you were going? Heisenberg replies: "No, but I know where I am". ====

==== · What do dipoles say in passing? "Have you got a moment?" ====

==== · What weapon can you make from the elements potassium, nickel and iron? ====

 · What's the difference between Chemistry and cooking?
==== In Chemistry, you should never lick the spoon. ====

==== · A sign outside the chemistry hotel reads "Great Day Rates, Even Better NO3-'s" ====

==== · Scientists know that all elements within a group of the periodic table behave similarly because they have the same number of valence electrons ====

 · Valence electrons determine the chemical properties
==== · To find the number of valence electrons in an atom of a representative element, simply look at its group number ==== ==== · Noble gases are the exception to this rule-> Helium has 2 and the others have 8 ==== ==== · Valence electrons are general the only electrons used in chemical bonds, therefore, valence electrons are the only electrons expressed in electron dot structures ==== ==== · Electron dot structures: diagrams that show valence electrons as dots AKA Lewis Dot Diagram ==== ==== [] ====

 · Gilbert Lewis formed The Octet Rule in 1916
==== · Atoms of the metallic elements tend to lose their valence electrons, leaving a complete octet in their next-lowest energy level ==== ==== · Atoms of some nonmetallic elements tend to gain electrons or to share electrons with another nonmetallic element to achieve a complete octet ====

** Formation of Cations ** :
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · An atom is electrically neutral because it has equal numbers of protons and electrons, an ion forms when an atom or group of atoms loses or gains electrons ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · An atom’s loss of valence electrons produces a cation (positively charged ion) ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · For metallic elements, the name of a cation is the same as the name of the element (example: sodium atom forms a sodium cation) ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · There are many chemical differences between metal and their cations ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The most common cations are those produced by the loss of valence electrons from metal atoms ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · You can represent the electron loss, or ionization, of the atoms by drawing the complete electron configuration of the atom and of the ion formed ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Electron dot structures show the ionization more simply ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · For transition metals, the charges of cations may vary. (Iron may lose two or three electrons. In the first case it forms Fe2+, but in the second case it forms Fe3+) ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Some transition metals do not have noble-gas configuration and are exceptions to the octet rule ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Ions with charges of 3 or more are extremely unlikely, thus silver does not achieve a noble-gas configuration ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l2 level1 lfo7; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · It may lose 5s1 electron the configuration that results (4s24p64d10) with 18 electrons in the outer energy level and all of the orbitals filled-> this is known as a pseudo noble-gas electron configuration (Ag+) ====

Anion: an atom or group of atoms with a negative charge
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The gain of negatively charged electrons by a neutral atom produces an anion ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The name of an anion typically ends in IDE
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Because they have relatively full valence shells, atoms of nonmetallic elements attain noble-gas electron configurations more easily by gaining electrons than by losing them ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · You use electron dot structures to write an equation showing the formation of anions ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Halide ions : ions that are produced when atoms of chlorine and other halogens gain electrons are called halide ions ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · All halogen atoms have seven valence electrons and need to gain only one electron to achieve the electron configuration of a noble gas ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l7 level1 lfo8; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Oxygen atoms attain the electron configuration of neon by gaining two electrons and the resulting oxide ions have charges of 2- ====

** Formation of Ionic Compounds **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Ionic compounds – compounds composed of cations and anions ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Although they are composed of ions, ionic compounds are electrically neutral. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The total positive charge of cations equals the total negative charge of the anions. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l17 level1 lfo9; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Ionic bonds – the electrostatic forces that hold ions together in ionic compounds ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: -.25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: -.25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> This is an ionic bond, sodium chloride, formed from a sodium atom and a chlorine atom. ====

** Properties of Ionic Compounds **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Most ionic compounds are crystalline solids at room temperature. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The component ions in such crystals are arranged in repeating three-dimensional patterns. ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Ionic Compounds generally have high melting points.
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · -the coordination number of an ion is the number of ions of opposite charge that surround the ion in a crystal. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Ionic compounds can conduct electric current when melted or dissolved in water. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l11 level1 lfo10; tab-stops: list 0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Cations and anions migrate freely to oppositely charged electrodes. ====

Crystalline Structure of Metals :
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - Metals are organized in very compact and orderly patterns, three examples of this are: ====
 * || ==== Body-Centered Cubic  ==== || ====  Face-Centered Cubic  ==== || ====  Hexagonal close-packed  ==== ||
 * ==== What it looks like (the atoms are much closer to eachother)  ==== || ====  [[image:file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Eileen/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image004.gif width="32" height="32" caption="https://www.llnl.gov/str/November05/gifs/Bulatov1.jpg"]]  ==== || ====  [[image:file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Eileen/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image004.gif width="32" height="32" caption="http://chem.ps.uci.edu/~rmpenner/Chem1ba/FCC.gif"]]  ==== || ====  [[image:file:///C:/DOCUME~1/Eileen/LOCALS~1/Temp/msohtml1/01/clip_image004.gif width="32" height="32" caption="http://www.everyscience.com/Chemistry/Inorganic/Ionic_Solids/.images/hcp_unitcell.gif"]]  ==== ||
 * ==== Elements like this  ==== || ====  Chromium  ==== || ====  Gold  ==== || ====  Zinc  ==== ||

Alloys:
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - Alloys are the everyday metals we use, combinations of more than one element. Examples: ====

- Sterling Silver, Bronze, Copper-nickel, and titanium and aluminum alloys.
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - These are used because combined they are stronger, more durable, or whatever is needed of the medal. ====

Chapter 8 Covalent Bonding
==== <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: blue; font-size: 20pt;">Section 8.1- Molecular Compounds ====

==== <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: green; font-size: 18pt;">Molecules and Molecular Compounds ====

==== <span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: white; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: #ff9900; font-size: 16pt;">What is a covalent bond? ====

• Example: water (H20) or hydrogen chloride (HCl)
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> • Molecules held together by covalent bonds do not rely on electrostatic attraction between atoms, unlike sodium chloride (NaCl) for example. ====

• Example: oxygen (O2) consists of 2 oxygen atoms covalently bonded
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> Atoms can also chemically combine to make compounds and in many cases form molecules within the compounds. ====

• ** Main idea- molecular compounds tend to have relatively lower melting and boiling points than ionic compounds. **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · Many are gases or liquids at room temp. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · Mostly made of atoms of 2 or more nonmetals ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 63.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l14 level1 lfo11; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · Example: carbon monoxide: 1 oxygen atom+ 1 carbon atom = deadly gas ====

• ** Main idea- A molecular formula shows how many atoms of each element a molecule contains. **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · Ex: water molecule= 2 hydrogen atoms + 1 oxygen atom. The molecular formula is H20. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 45.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l4 level1 lfo12; tab-stops: list 45.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · Subscript numbers show how many atoms of each element are in the molecule ====

-halogens form single covalent bonds in diatomic molecules
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -an unshared pair means a pair of valence electrons that is not shared between atoms ====

Double and Triple Covalent Bonds
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -when atoms share 2 or 3 pairs of electrons, they can form double or triple covalent bonds if they have noble gas structure ====

*Nitrogen (N2) is an example of a triple bond N N
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -the diatomic elements Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen ====

====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l19 level1 lfo2; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">// · //// Through drawing arrows that point from the atom donating the pair of electrons to the atom gaining electrons // ====

==== // (First paragraph or so breaks it up into simple, understandable term, from there it gets confusing) // ====

** Ions in Water ** ** Tightly bonded group of atoms that have a positive or negative charge and behave as a unit. ** (all of the things we had to remember for the oral after Christmas Break)
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -Still having trouble getting these down? Maybe this can help: [] ====

It also takes energy to break a covalent bond between two atoms.
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: .75in list 75.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> ·  Therefore, bond dissociation energy is the energy required to break the bond between two covalently bonded atoms. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l12 level1 lfo13; tab-stops: .75in list 75.75pt; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The more bond disassociation energy needed, the stronger the covalent bond is. ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; tab-stops: .75in;">
==== **<span style="background-attachment: initial; background-clip: initial; background-color: yellow; background-image: initial; background-origin: initial; background-position: initial initial; background-repeat: initial initial; color: black; font-size: 14pt;">Caity talk ** : So there are two little kids, Billy and Bobby (Looney, shh). Billy decides to push Bobby down the stairs. Of course Bobby is extremely angry and decides the only way to handle the argument, in his little 8 year old mind, is to attack Billy; reasonable I suppose. The amount of energy it takes for Bobby to tackle Billy by jumping on his back is the ** energy needed to create the covalent bond ****. ** So eventually the fight gets so out of control that Billy ends up screaming the “Our Father” in hope for God’s intervention. Instead, their mom (Mrs. Looney) comes to the scene and pulls Bobby off of Billy’s back. ** The amount of energy she used to dislodge Bobby’s teeth from Billy’s shirt is the bond disassociation energy ****. ** *if this analogy doesn’t make the slightest amount of sense to you, disregard please. In my mind though, it works… ====

Resonance Structure : Structure that occurs when it is possible to draw two or more valid electron dot structures that have the same number of electron pairs for a molecule or ion.
====<span style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: .75in; text-indent: -.25in;"> ·  ||  || Double headed arrows are used to connect resonance structure  ====

Octet Rule : rule that also provides guidance for drawing electron dot structure.
==== ** *THE OCTET RULE CANNOT BE SATISFIED IN MOLECULES WHOSE TOTAL NUMBER OF VALENCE ELECTRONS IS AN ODD NUMBER OR IF THE MOLECULES HAVE ATOMS THAT HAVE FEWER OR MORE THAN A COMPLETE OCTET OF VALENCE ELECTRONS ** ====

** Molecular Orbitals **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** So far, the models we have been using assume that that the orbitals of the electrons are those of the individual atoms. ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** However, ** there are orbitals that exist only for groupings of atoms, and they are orbitals that apply to the whole molecule, or molecular orbitals. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l18 level1 lfo14; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">** · **** Bonding orbitals are molecular orbitals that can have 2 electrons from a covalent bond. ** ==== ==== || || ** Sigma bond **** – **** when 2 atomic orbitals make a molecular orbital that is **** symmetrical on the axis. ** ====

==== ** Hybrid Orbitals ** Orbital hybridization provides information about both molecular bonding and molecular shape. In hybridization, several atomic orbitals mix to form the same total number of equivalent hybrid orbitals. ====

** Ionic compounds ** // are combinations of a positive metal ion and a negative non-metal ion in a proportion so that their charges equal zero. //
==== ** A monatomic ion ** // is an ion that has a single atom with a positive or negative charge from the loss or gain of a valence electron. Example: Au+ is The Gold Ion, H- is Hydride (Negatives always end in -ide) // ====

-Cations are positive ions
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -When the metals in groups 1A, 2A, and 3A lose electrons, they form cations with positive charges respective to their group number ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -Therefore, Na+ is "The Sodium Ion", Ca+2 is "The Calcium Ion", and Al+3 is "The Aluminium Ion" ====

-The charge of a nonmetallic ion is negative
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -The charge of any ion of a Group A nonmetal is determined by subtracting 8 from the group number (so the halogens would be -1 etc.) ====

** Ions of Transition Metals **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -The charges of the cations of many transition metal ions are determined from the number of electrons lost ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -In the Stock system of naming these ions, a roman numeral is placed in parentheses after the metal signifying the number of electrons lost A few transition metals only have 1 ionic charge. These exceptions include Silver (Ag) and Gold (Au) ** Polyatomic Ions ** more polyatomic ions Examples:  ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -Polyatomic ions are composed of more than one atom -The names of most ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> polyatomic ions end in -ite or -ate -Sometimes the same element combines ====

** Polar bond ** – a covalent bond between atoms in which the electrons are shared unequally ** polar molecule **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - a molecule in which one side of the molecule is slightly negative and the opposite side is slightly positive ** dipole (dipole molecule) ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; text-indent: .5in;"> - a molecule that has two poles, or regions with opposite charges ====

** dipole interactions **** : ** occur when polar molecules are attracted to one another
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l10 level2 lfo6; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> -  the positive side is attracted to another's negative and vise versa, making them stick together  ====

** dispersion forces **** : ** the weakest of all molecular interaction; are caused by the motion of electrons and occur between polar or non-polar molecules e - electrons push against each other
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l10 level2 lfo6; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;">** - ** the more electrons, the stronger the dispersion force (generally) ====

==== ** network solid **** : ** solid in which all of the atoms are covalently bonded to each otherthe melting of a network solid would require the breaking of all these covalent bondsex. diamonds, silicon carbide (they are like single molecules) ====

** Binary Ionic Compounds **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · // Before there was chemistry, newly discovered compounds were named just about anything that the discover wanted // ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · // Many compounds were named based on a particular property they have // ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · // -ex. NaHCO3 is called baking soda, because it makes cakes rise // ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · A negative effect of the names is that they don’t tell you anything about the chemical composition of a compound/ give you any indication about its relationship to other compounds ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l9 level1 lfo15; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · Antoine- Laurent Lavoisier was a French chemist who determined the compositions of many compounds. He realized that it was way too difficult to memorize all the compounds names because they were unrelated, so he decided to make a systematic method for naming chemical compounds. He worked with other chemists to do this and the method they created is the basis for naming compounds to this day. ====

** Binary compound ** - a compound composed of two elements, can be either ionic or molecular
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · To name any binary ionic compound, remember: cation name+ anion name=compound name ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> o -ex. Cs20=cesium oxide NaBr ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level2 lfo16; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> o sodium bromide SrF2= strontium oxide= ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · But what about CuO? Just saying copper oxide isn‘t enough. Copper can form two cations: Cu+ and Cu2+. The formula tells to that the copper cation and the oxide anion are in a 1:1 ratio. The charge of oxide is 2-, so the charge of copper must be 2+ in order to balance out the charges. From that, we can figure out the name for CuO is copper(II) oxide. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · The charges of monatomic anions can be figured out from the periodic table ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 9.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l13 level1 lfo16; tab-stops: list 9.0pt; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · [|_http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ww_hvRH0Luk__] ====

** Writing Formulas for Binary Ionic Compounds **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · You can write a binary compound’s formula, if you know its name ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -First, write the symbol of the cation -Then, write the symbol of the anion - Lastly, add whatever subscripts are needed to balance the charges ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · The positive charge of the cation has to balance the anion’s negative charge, so that the net ionic charge of the formula ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - ex. Potassium Chloride KCl (Made up of potassium cations (K+) and chloride anions (Cl-). They must combine in a 1:1 ratio.) ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> - Calcium Bromide= CaBr2 ( Made up of calcium cations (Ca2+) and bromide anions (Br-). The ions must combine in a 1:2 ratio.)= ==== ====<span style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-line-height-alt: 14.25pt; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · What about iron (III) oxide? ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level2 lfo17; tab-stops: list 1.0in; text-indent: -.25in;"> o In order to balance a 3+ charge with a 2- charge, you must mind the least common multiple, which is 6. Two of iron’s three charges equal 6 and three of oxygen’s 3 charges equal 6. Therefore, two Fe3+ cations balance three O2- anions, so the formula is Fe2O3. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · An easier way to write formulas is the crisscross method, which is explained in the video below. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l3 level1 lfo17; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · [|__http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vscoYh6m46M__] ====

For the video above, remember that (generally) cations
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> metals and anions= non metals. Here is a link where you can practice with binary ionic compound names and formulas, using matching games, flashcards, etc. ====

** Compounds with Polyatomic Ions **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -ate or -ite ending on the name of a compound indicates that the compound contains a polyatomic anion that includes oxygen. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -For an ionic compound with a polyatomic ion, write the symbol for the cation followed by the formula for the polyatomic ion and balance the charges. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -Write the formula for each ion in the order in the listed name. Subscripts should be used to balance the charges. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -If more than one polyatomic ion is needed to balance the formula, place the polyatomic ion formula in parentheses, followed by a subscript showing the number needed. ====

==== ** Recognize that the compound contains a polyatomic ion. ** ** To name a compound containing a polyatomic ion, state the cation first and then the anion just as you did in naming binary ionic compounds. ** ====

HOW to name binary molecular compounds
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> -Make sure it is a binary molecular compound (compound with two nonmetals) Name the elements listed in the formula in order (use prefixes the amount of each element) Add –ide to the end of the second element ====

Naming Acids
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Acids are a group of ionic compounds with unique properties ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Contain one or more hydrogen atoms and produce hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · An acid is is made of an anion combined with enough H+ to be neutral ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · HnX (X is mono/polyatomic ion and n indicates how many H+) ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l16 level1 lfo18; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Three rules to name acids: ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">// -When the name of the anion ends in - //// ide  ////, the acid name begins with the prefix // //  hydro  //// -. The stem of the anion has the suffix - // // ic  //// and followed by the word // //  acid  //**// (ex. Clor //****//  ide  //** // > // **//  Hydro  //**// chlor //**//  ic Acid  //**// ) // ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin: 0in; mso-list: l20 level1 lfo3; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;">// · // ====

====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">// -When the anion name ends in - //// ite  ////, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix - ////  ous  //// , followed by the word // //  acid  //**// (ex. Sulf //****//  ite  //** // -> Sulfur //**//  ous acid  //**// ) // ====

====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;">// -When the anion name ends in - //// ate  ////, the acid name is the stem of the anion with the suffix - ////  ic  //// followed by the word // //  acid  //**// (ex. Nitr //****//  ate  //** // > Nitr //**//  ic Acid//)  //** ====

** Use the rules for writing the names of acids in reverse to write the formulas for acid **
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .25in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l1 level1 lfo20; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;">** · ** = ** Ex. ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Hydrobromic acid= hydrogen ion (H+) and bromide ion (Br-). Therefore the formula is HBr. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-left: .25in; mso-list: l6 level1 lfo19; tab-stops: list .25in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Since the hydrogen ion has a positive 1 charge and the bromide ion has a negative 1 charge, so they cancel out and the compound is neutral. This way, you know your work is right ====

Names and Formulas for Bases
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Bases are ionic compounds that produce hydroxide ions when dissolved in water ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Bases are named with the name of the cation followed by the name of the anion (cation followed by hydroxide) ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Ex. Sodium hydroxide is NaOH ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Na has a 1+ charge and OH has a 1- charge ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · create neutral compounds ====

====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · Aluminum Hydroxide is Al(OH) 3 ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Aluminum has a 3+ charge ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Need 3 OH- to balance it out ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Polyatomic ions can be used as cations ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l5 level1 lfo21; tab-stops: list .5in; text-indent: -.25in;"> · ** Ammonium hydroxide (NH 4 ﻿OH) is made of NH 4 + ﻿ and OH - ** ====

==== [|Practice Problems (go to last few pages)]  ====

==== ** Law of definite proportions **** - ** ** In samples of any chemical compound, the masses of the elements are always in the same proportions. Water and hydrogen peroxide, two very different compounds, ** ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in 1.0in; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · are both made up of hydrogen and oxygen. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in 1.25in; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · abide by the law of definite proportions. In hydrogen peroxide, the ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> oxygen to hydrogen ratio is 16:1. For water it is 8:1
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .5in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in 1.25in; text-indent: -9.0pt;"> · If a sample of hydrogen peroxide has the same mass of hydrogen as a ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 27.0pt; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> sample of water, the ratio for the mass of oxygen in the two compounds ====

<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> 16g O(in H2O2 sample with 1g H) 16 2 --
====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: 1.0in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in;"> --- = --- = 2:1 16g O(in H2O sample that has 1g H) 8 1 The ratio of oxygen in H2O2 to oxygen in H2O is a small, whole numbered ratio.= ====

==== Law of multiple proportions- ** Whenever the same two elements form more than one kind of compounds, the different masses of one element that combine with the same mass of the other element are in the ratio of small whole numbers. ** ====

example:
====   ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · The carbon monoxide molecule and carbon dioxide molecules are made of the same two elements, carbon and oxygen. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · Both molecules have equal masses of carbon. ==== ====<span style="line-height: 14.25pt; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0in; margin-left: .75in; margin-right: 0in; margin-top: 0in; mso-list: l8 level1 lfo22; tab-stops: list .75in; text-indent: -27.0pt;"> · ** The ratio of (mass of oxygen in carbon monoxide: mass of oxygen in carbon dioxide) is 1:2, a small ratio with whole numbers. ** ====

** Practicing Skills: Naming Chemical Compounds (Continued) **
==== Use the following chart [|http://www.powayusd.com/pusdphs/library/Documents/Chemistry%20Naming%20Compounds%20Flow%20Chart.pdf]  ====

==== ex: Sodium Chromate The name contains no prefixes so its ionic. The two ions that are contained in this compound are a sodium ion and a chromate ion. Sodium is in Group A and therefore has a +1 charge. Chromate is a polyatomic ion with a -2 charge. Balance these charges in order to obtain the formula Na2CrO4. ====